Analysis Of Mary Atwood And Sylvia Plath s The Handmaid...

Death is a part of Life. Ironically, despite this inevitable truth, many people spend the duration of their lives fearing death. In a way, the concept of living seems rather futile if the end result remains inalterable. Why fight to live if death is inevitable? It is in this despondent frame of mind, the woman of Sylvia Plath’s poem, Edge, and Moira of Margaret Atwood’s novel, The Handmaids Tale, find themselves accepting their condemnation as their destiny. Both Margaret Atwood and Sylvia Plath use their works as emotional outlets to express the hopeless disposition one comes to embrace having reached the point of exhaustion. Together, Moira from The Handmaid’s Tale and the â€Å"perfected woman† from Edge exemplify the quality of life or lack†¦show more content†¦Looking at both works comparatively, Plath’s poem acts as a foreshadowing for the potential downfall to come in Atwood’s female characters if they do indeed allow â€Å"t he bastards to grind them down†. The Handmaids Tale follows multiple women through their experiences with oppressive forces ranging from government to the male population as well as the female population. Of these women, the character of Moira proves to be the most determined in her efforts to resist conformity. Through the protagonist’s perspective, we learn Moira is Offred’s best friend from pre-Gilead days. Since Gilead has come to replace The United States in this dystopian novel, women’s rights have been revoked entirely leaving them vulnerable to the men monopolizing the power. In fear for their lives, most women become complacent accepting their new roles in this patriarchal society, Offred included. Unlike Offred and these other women, Moira refuses to succumb to her position in the new system. Offred portrays Moira to be an image of inspiration for all women too frightened to mimic her actions. Just as Offred, Moira has been captured and is in the process of being trained as a handmaid at the Red Center. To further enhance the gender divide, Atwood uses the role of a handmaid to explore the connection between gender and politics, specifically women’s bodies being viewed as property. Being that handmaids are of the few fertile women left in this toxic

Role Of Hrm Over The Period Of Time - 1495 Words

The report is an amalgamation of three patches of which, first, is a journal review of two human resources related articles: â€Å"Extending the Scope of Organisational Culture: the External Perception or an Internal Phenomenon† (MacIntosh and Doherty, 2007) and â€Å"Organisational Culture: An exploratory study comparing faculties’ perspectives within public and private universities in Malaysia† (Ramachandran, Ching and Ismail, 2010). This journal review is concluded by a reflection wherein the scholar expresses his experiences of the task. Next comes an essay which provides an insight into how an organisation can achieve benefits by implementing various HR practices in successful manner. Here literary work is extensively discussed in chronological†¦show more content†¦The outcome was increase in attrition rate and employee dissatisfaction. To combat these, suitable recommendations are made. Finally the report ends with a brief conclusion about what are the learning’s from these three exercises of different types and how people and organisations can be better managed. PATCH 1 1.3 PATCH 1: Introduction In this segment an analysis of the two articles has been presented. The significance and inevitability of organizational culture is made prominent in both of the research study. The investigation of one study revolves around the corporate culture exclusively in the fitness organization in Canada while in the other study corporate culture in the private and public higher education institutions has been highlighted. Both the papers conclude that organizational culture is like corporate norms which impacts customer perception and need to be followed by employees. 1.4 Journal Summary Sheets To be found in the Appendix 1.5 Research Methodology The random sampling methodology is being adopted in the first study. Five cubs were selected as sample. Sources of data used to collect information were both primary sources and secondary sources. The participants were expected to fill up the questionnaire on the spot or to mail the survey through post. Participants were asked to rate their responses on a seven point scale

Elevating Repositioning Costs Strategy Dynamics

Question: Discuss about the Elevating Repositioning Costs for Strategy Dynamics. Answer: Strategic management refers to the most appropriate method in which one can apply to the running of an organization. It plays an integral role in the expansion of the company since it forms basis through which one can establish positive or negative returns from the association. The managerial body should encompass people who are ready to dig deeper into different research platform so as to be exposed to the best measures and approaches to utilize so as to make the most appropriate decision concerning the company. The businesses that their management is inefficient concerning exercising their roles do not withstand the challenges which arise as a result of the existence of competition in the trading world (Baumgartner Rauter, 2017). Therefore, it is prudent for them to apply different phenomena which have been proven to work in the best way possible for various traders such has the value chain theory by Michael Porter. The theory is rich in fundamental studies on how one can be successful in the administration of an enterprise in this cutthroat business scenario being experienced on earth. Furthermore, the company can be managed in an overt way if at all the planning body has the knowledge concerning the micro and the macro environment affecting the busines s. This study will enable one to make prudent choices while dealing with various matters related to the administration of the corporation. Value chain of Lazard Lazada Company applies the Michael Porter's theory of conceptualization which outlines that the company should ensure their production go in line with the needs of the consumers. According to Michael, the company should make sure that both inbound and outbound logistics of the firm is well organized. For instance, Brenes, Ciravegna Woodside, (2017) outlines that, Lazada online shop ensures that the products in which they sell are readily available in their stores by the time the consumers make orders. This dynamism eases the manner at which the business is done in their association. Besides, Lazada has very qualified suppliers who are taken into vigorous exercise during the interviews after doing tenders for the providers for the various types of goods in which the company deals with in the industry. They are given a time span in which they can deliver their products with the view of ensuring that the commodities reach the firm as well they should be readily available for the buyers . The value chain of the company is much developed because their advertisement is done in different sites, notably, the Facebook and the various Google sites (Chen, Pan Ouyang, 2014). It is estimated that this corporation has more than thirteen million followers on Facebook. These numbers of people have developed their way of making purchases by only making a request on the Facebook sites. Therefore, this helps in increasing the revenue for the Lazada. This strategy made by the key stakeholders to the company was withstanding since for one to make good sales on an internet platform (Cui Pan, 2015). One has to have at least a social media account through which one can interact with their customers. More so, Porter's value chain theory which has been applied extensively in this form of endeavor is seen in the manner in which deliveries are made to the buyers. The business runs twenty-four hours every day and thus the consumers upon making request receive their goods at the time sche duled as per the deal drawn between the parties. The products reach the customers at the right quality, quantity, and shape. Such dimensions have led to an increase in the profits as a result of consumers retained as well as new ones who join the corporation on a daily basis. Likewise, the goods produced by Lazada are branded in such a way that it is appealing to the consumers. Nonetheless, those which are received from the different suppliers are renowned in such as manner that uniformity is obtained. Lazada key competencies Business competence, especially in this century where different kinds of activities are being invented as a result of harsh economic times, is very pivotal for one to remain in the market for an extended period. Nevertheless, Lazada has been realized to being quite competent in their endeavors. One of the main features is that; they have a booming business model in which they use in running the activities across the Southeast Asia. Their central point is the unwavering convince in which they provide for their consumers. According to the statistics carried out by Hennart Slangen, (2015), Lazada is focusing on improving the percentage of the clients in which they make their purchases online to rise 1% to at least 5 % annually. This target has been apprehended after they counter Amazon through minimizing their processing times whereas ensuring maximization of the customer expediency. The creation of the leverage as improved their strengths to extend of creating eight hundred thousand d iverse products in their online souk podium (Johnson, 2014). The increased number of goods and services in the company has led to a massive number of customers who are always interested in making of all their needs from different demands ranging from that of house ware to the fashion under one roof. The perplexing increment in the figure of buyers has led to the development of new energy of providing more products in the industry as per the taste and preference of the consumers. Consequently, making them gain the ability to be in the market in which they pioneer since the users no longer prefer the competing companies. Likewise, the company provides goods which suites both medium and small income individuals. The consumers are people who have different capabilities in commercial standards. It is important for the business fraternity to provide goods in which the buyers from all social classes can afford. This important aspect of commerce is what is thriving Lazada. According to Davi d, (2016), different people prefer them unlike their rivals since they have a variety of products meant for all levels of individuals in the society such has the children aged and the middle-age people. The matter has enabled it to run with a large number of consumers and thus generating enough revenue to sustain it in the industry as well aiding in the expansion to other countries in the world. Additionally, the company is supported by BOI which is an online promotion investment in Asia. This firm provides non-taxable incentives which operate by providing the skilled labor force and also enables the company to get accessibility to the total foreign ownership in the enterprise (Durand, Grant Madsen, 2017). This initiative as enabled Lazada to provide quality products as a result of the presence of the skilled personnel unlike their rival corporation like Amazon. Such practices thus have made it to continuously prosper in the market with manageable competition from other firms. Macro-environmental scan of the new of the company Macro business environment refers to the forces which affect the company externally, and they have the inability to control. They include economic, Legal, Political, social and technological aspects. These factors have the ability to affect the operations of the business both negatively and positively. The new market in which Lazada should undertake is Indian online sector. The political stability of this country is justifiable, and thus the operations of the Lazada would be harmonious (Menon Yao, 2017). The government of India has a well laid down security measures, and thus any foreigner with the intention of doing business in the country is guaranteed of their safety. Additionally, the economic system of India is defined. The Lazada Company can make double sales as compared to one in which it used to sell in Southeast Asian countries. The reason is that India is very populated country and thus there is the availability of a large market for the goods and services offered by the g roup (Rothaermel, 2016). Nevertheless, this population is made up of people who love fashion as one can justify that Indians are fond of wearing beautiful clothes with ornaments of all types. Moreover, the social matter is also an important aspect of the macro-environment. The Indian people in spite of being so religious, they can purchase a broad range of commodities such as mobile phones and kitchen ware and house decors. Therefore, the Lazada group of companies will still work within its rationale in this given country. The legal matters concerning the online business platform are not that strict as compared to the people doing businesses in the shops (Sila, 2015). In fact, the Indian government is encouraging ecommerce businesses, and thus rules and regulations involving carrying out of venture are favorable. This justifies that the Lazada companies can operate at peace in the new location without problems. The technological knowhow is the central point in this form of trade. Th e country in which one should serve should have a good network connectivity as well people who have mobile phones which are internet accessible. This is not a challenge to India since they are classified as being among the fast growing industrial countries with new technology. For that matter, Lazada should not hesitate in doing commerce in this state. Strengths of three ecommerce companies of the new market India is made up of various enterprises that deal with online products. One of these firms is the Amazon whose headquarters is in the United States. It deals with a range of products such as beauty products, house ware, and home decors products. It has been the dominating business in the world as far as online business activities are concerned. Currently, it is struggling to make India its second biggest market in the world apart from the United States. However, its high prices and failure to provide goods and services which cut across people of all economic stands as proved futile since this has become an advantage for the Lazada group of companies and thus offering the best platform in which Lazada can compete and make significant sales as compared to Amazon (Gregory, Ngo Karavdic, 2017). FleAffair is also another ecommerce based in India. It has been in the operations for more than a decade dealing with electronics and men and women clothing. This company has been experiencing so me challenges related to poor management and incompetent workforce. These issues have consistently made it fail and at the moment have proven it cannot manage its operations. The company's managerial team has been forced to consider the probability of takeover and thus giving an opportunity for the Lazada to enjoy the fruits of their failure (Laufs Schwens, 2014). To add on that, Ebay is also among the companies controling the Indian ecommerce sector. Like the Amazon, it has been on the market for an extended period, and thus they have a large number of consumers. It is the biggest company though the entry of Lazada may lead to decrease in its number of customers. This company deals with a broad range of products such as mobile phones and tablets, house ware, clothing and medical and pharmaceutical facilities. They sell their products at a relatively higher price, and most do not make prompt deliveries as expected. This problem has slowly led to its slow growth, and thus the chance of being overturned by the entry of Lazada is inevitable. Therefore, Lazada as the opportunity of making itself a giant by competing with such a company since its ability to make prompt deliveries to the consumers is admirable (Trigeorgis Reuer, 2017). Maintaining of the spirit of ensuring the products reaches the consumers as per the agreed period as was in the Southeast Asia will give this enterprise a chance to secure a place in which it can enjoy a competitive advantage in this hosting nation. Different modes of entry Methods of entry are the various ways in which a company can apply in the event where it wants to extend its operations to another country in the world. There are many methods involved; however, one will delve upon the common ones and more so which applies to our course of study in the case of Lazada Company. These models include; franchising, licensing, joint venture and export mechanisms which are used by various companies in trading in foreign destinations (Elshaer et al., 2016). Franchising is a method through which a company with a little capability of running its business pays a royalty to another company so as to gain the ability of recognition with the trade mark of the purchasing company. The company purchasing trademark will be seen as the mother company since their products are similar in all dimensions. It is an excellent form of doing business; however, it inhibits one from developing into an independent business in the market. On the other hand, Grant, (2016) outlines, licensing is an entry mode in which one undergoes through the rules and regulations of the country in which one desires to operate by conforming to their paper work and so forth. One is entitled to pay taxes and licenses which allow one to carry on with the business (Li, Guo Xu, 2017). This type of entry mode is very common. The joint venture type of entrance manner is also applauded with most of the business organizations (Morris et al., 2015). They consider it very easy only because they enter into a ready market for their goods. The companies dealing with same type business activities mutually make an agreement of becoming one business unit. The law requires the merging companies to sign documents of incorporation to show that they are partners in the given corporation. Lastly, the export form of an entry in another country commercial sector is also pivotal. One receives this kind of acceptability by selling their products to another country and vice versa. It is a common form o f business in the world. According to the scrutiny by Leih Teece, (2014), one can comprehend that the best way in which Lazada can enter into the Indian market is a joint venture. It is prudent for them to approach FleAffair online which is interested in partnering with other company in running the online business due to a massive failure in which it has been experiencing over an extended period. By doing so, they will be assured of the most suitable process for obtaining the consent of trading in India (Martin, 2013). Additionally, the company will only reignite itself by the offering of services in which the FleAffair company had failed and thus an easy way of countering the rivals in Indian online podium as well increasing their sales as a company. Conclusion Strategic planning is vital to the success of the enterprise. The Lazada group of companies has proven to be led by the most competent workforce which results from their output and the input in the business. The competitive advantage in which they exhibit in the Asian market is a promising indication that they can succeed elsewhere. The availability of large market in the Southeast Asia has advanced its skills in trade because most the products in which they sale have the designated group of people in the society. For achievement of any online platform, the companies should take the example of the Lazada in the manner in which they reach their clients and so forth. Recommendation Online business is one f the flourishing industries in the world today. It is important for the government to allow the amendment of the school curriculum to pave room for the online course so as to increase the number of people entering into this sector. The economic issues affecting the entire world needs extensive research in this field since it has proven to be culpable in the offering of employment to a large number of unemployed youth worldwide (Pereira-Moliner et al., 2016). Likewise, the state should ensure their countries are well supplied with electricity and network facilities. All the online work uses the presence of handy interface gadgets which cannot be sustained without the use of electricity. Therefore, such measures should be in place. Moreover, the security involving the cybercrime should be peeved up by the different safety agencies so as to avoid fraudulent cases while one carries out their trading activities. Additionally, enterprises should be encouraged to inc orporate their existing businesses into online type (Goerzen, Asmussen Nielsen, 2014). This will lead to an increment in their sales since most of the people are too committed and thus taking up responsibilities of making purchases from the different business outlets is a problem. Such measures will allow for expansion of various companies as well growth in employment opportunities in various fields. References Barnes, S., Hunt, B. (Eds.). (2013). E-commerce and v-business. Routledge. Barnett, P. (2017). Sages of Strategic Management: Inside the Minds of the Great Business Thinkers and Strategists. John Wiley Sons. Baumgartner, R. J., Rauter, R. (2017). Strategic perspectives of corporate sustainability management to develop a sustainable organization. Journal of Cleaner Production, 140, 81-92. Brenes, E. R., Ciravegna, L., Woodside, A. G. (2017). Taking the Complexity Turn in Strategic Management Theory and Research. In The Complexity Turn (pp. 21-66). Springer International Publishing. Chen, J. E., Pan, S. L., Ouyang, T. H. (2014). Routine reconfiguration in traditional companiese-commerce strategy implementation: A trajectory perspective. Information Management, 51(2), 270-282. Cui, M., Pan, S. L. (2015). Developing focal capabilities for e-commerce adoption: A resource orchestration perspective. Information Management, 52(2), 200-209. David, F. R. (2016). Strategic Management: A Competitive Advantage Approach, Concepts and Cases, Student Value... Edition. Prentice Hall. Durand, R., Grant, R. M., Madsen, T. L. (2017). The expanding domain of strategic management research and the quest for integration. Strategic Management Journal, 38(1), 4-16. Elshaer, I. A., Elshaer, I. A., Augustyn, M. M., Augustyn, M. M. (2016). Direct effects of quality management on competitive advantage. International Journal of Quality Reliability Management, 33(9), 1286-1310. Goerzen, A., Asmussen, C. G., Nielsen, B. B. (2014). Global cities and multinational enterprise location strategy. In Location of International Business Activities (pp. 137-180). Palgrave Macmillan UK. Grant, R. M. (2016). Contemporary strategy analysis: Text and cases edition. John Wiley Sons. Gregory, G. D., Ngo, L. V., Karavdic, M. (2017). Developing e-commerce marketing capabilities and efficiencies for enhanced performance in business-to-business export ventures. Industrial Marketing Management. Hennart, J. F., Slangen, A. H. (2015). Yes, we really do need more entry mode studies! A commentary on Shaver. Journal of International Business Studies, 46(1), 114-122. Johnson, P. F. (2014). Purchasing and supply management. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Laufs, K., Schwens, C. (2014). Foreign market entry mode choice of small and medium-sized enterprises: A systematic review and future research agenda. International Business Review, 23(6), 1109-1126. Leih, S., Teece, D. (2014). Market Entry Strategies. Li, W., Guo, B., Xu, G. (2017). How do linking, leveraging and learning capabilities influence the entry mode choice for multinational firms from emerging markets?. Baltic Journal of Management, 12(2). Martin, X. (2013). Solving theoretical and empirical conundrums in international strategy research: Linking foreign entry mode choices and performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 44(1), 28-41. Menon, A. R., Yao, D. A. (2017). Elevating Repositioning Costs: Strategy Dynamics and Competitive Interactions. Strategic Management Journal. Morris, M., Schindehutte, M., Richardson, J., Allen, J. (2015). Is the business model a useful strategic concept? Conceptual, theoretical, and empirical insights. Journal of Small Business Strategy, 17(1), 27-50. Pereira-Moliner, J., Pereira-Moliner, J., Pertusa-Ortega, E. M., Pertusa-Ortega, E. M., Tar, J. J., Tar, J. J., ... Molina-Azorn, J. F. (2016). Organizational design, quality management and competitive advantage in hotels. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28(4), 762-784. Rothaermel, F. T. (2016). Competitive Advantage in Technology Intensive Industries. In Technological Innovation: Generating Economic Results (pp. 233-256). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Sila, I. (2015). The state of empirical research on the adoption and diffusion of business-to-business e-commerce. International Journal of Electronic Business, 12(3), 258-301. Trigeorgis, L., Reuer, J. J. (2017). Real options theory in strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 38(1), 42-63.

The History of Semantics Essay Example

The History of Semantics Essay semantics  [Gr. ,=significant] in general, the study of the relationship between words and meanings. The empirical study of word meanings and sentence meanings in existing languages is a branch of linguistics; the abstract study of meaning in relation to language or symbolic logic systems is a branch of philosophy. Both are called semantics. The field of semantics has three basic concerns: the relations of words to the objects denoted by them, the relations of words to the interpreters of them, and, in symbolic logic, the formal relations of signs to one another (syntax). In linguistics, semantics has its beginnings in France and Germany in the 1820s when the meanings of words as significant features in the growth of language was recognized. Among the foremost linguistic semanticists of the 20th cent. are Gustaf Stern, Jost Trier, B. L. Whorf, Uriel Weinreich, Stephen Ullmann, Thomas Sebeok, Noam  Chomsky, Jerrold Katz, and Charles Osgood. In the linguistics of recent years an offshoot of transformational  grammar  theory has reemphasized the role of meaning in linguistic analysis. This new theory, developed largely by George Lakoff and James McCawley, is termed generative semantics. In anthropology a new theoretical orientation related to linguistic semantics has been developed. Its leading proponents include W. H. Goodenough, F. G. Lounsbury, and Claude  Levi-Strauss. In philosophy, semantics has generally followed the lead of symbolic logic, and many philosophers do not make a distinction between logic and semantics. In this context, semantics is concerned with such issues as meaning and truth, meaning and thought, and the relation between signs and what they mean. We will write a custom essay sample on The History of Semantics specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The History of Semantics specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The History of Semantics specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The leading practitioners have been Gottlob  Frege, Lady Welby, Bertrand  Russell, Otto Neurath, RudolfCarnap, Alonzo Church, Alfred Tarski, C. I. Lewis, Ludwig  Wittgenstein, J. L. Austin, W. V. Quine, P. F. Strawson, Steven Schiffer, John Searle, H. P. Grice, Saul Kripke, Donald Davidson, and Gilbert Harman. Since the publication of the influential  The Meaning of Meaning  (1925) by C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, semantics has also become important to literary criticism and stylistics, in which the way that metaphors evoke feelings is investigated and differences between ordinary and literary language are studied. A related discipline, general semantics (so called to distinguish it from semantics in linguistics or philosophy), studies the ways in which meanings of words influence human behavior. General semantics was developed by Alfred  Korzybski. The key term in Korzybskis system is evaluation, the mental act that is performed by the hearer when a word is spoken. Among the most prominent followers of Korzybski are Stuart Chase, S. I. Hayakawa, and H. L. Weinberg. Bibliography A useful introduction to general semantics is H. L. Weinberg,  Levels of Knowing and Existence  (1959) and F. R. Palmer,  Semantics  (1981). For semantics in linguistics, see S. Ullman,  Semantics  (1962) and  The Principles of Semantics  (1957, repr. 1967); N. Chomsky,  Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar  (1972); G. Leach,  Semantics  (1974); and J. Lyons,  Language, Meaning, and Context  (1981). For semantics in philosophy, see R. Carnap,  Meaning and Necessity  (2d ed. 1956); K. and A. Lehrer,  The Theory of Meaning  (1970); J. F. Rosenberg and C. Travis, ed. ,  Readings in the Philosophy of Language  (1971); and D. Davidson and G. Harman, ed. ,  Semantics of Natural Language  (2d ed. 1973). For semantics in literary criticism, see K. Burke,  A Rhetoric of Motives  (1950) and  A Grammar of Motives  (1955) and the works of W. Empson and P. Wheelwright. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia ® Copyright  © 2013, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www. cc. columbia. edu/cu/cup/ Ads by Google Have You Written a Book? Talk to a Publishing Advisor. Get published now. Get our Free Guide! AuthorHouse. co. uk [pic] semantics Study of meaning, one of the major areas of linguistic study (see  linguistics). Linguists have approached it in a variety of ways. Members of the school of interpretive semantics study the structures of language independent of their conditions of use. In contrast, the advocates of generative semantics insist that the meaning of sentences is a function of their use. Still another group maintains that semantics will not advance until theorists take into account the psychological questions of how people form concepts and how these relate to word meanings. For more information on  semantics, visit Britannica. com. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Copyright  © 1994-2008 Encyclop? dia Britannica, Inc. Ads by Google 3 50 www. sharqacademy. com [pic] semantics The study of the meaning of words. Contrast with  syntax, which governs the structure of a language. See  Semantic Web  and  Systemantics. Computer Desktop Encyclopedia copyright  ©1981-2013 by  The Computer Language Company Inc. All Right reserved. THIS DEFINITION IS FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY. All other reproduction is strictly prohibited without permission from the publisher. Ads by Google High School Online Self-paced online courses help you Finish High School your way. www. aiuhs. org [pic] semantics 1. the study of the relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent 2. Logic a. the study of interpretations of a formal theory b. he study of the relationship between the structure of a theory and its subject matter c. (of a formal theory) the principles that determine the truth or falsehood of sentences within the theory, and the references of its terms Collins Discovery Encyclopedia, 1st edition  © HarperCollins Publishers 2005 Ads by Google egypt. dubizzle. com [pic] semant ics  [si? man ·tiks] (communications) The branch of semiotics that deals with the relations between symbols and what they stand for, and defines the meaning that is prescribed for a statement by its originator. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific Technical Terms, 6E, Copyright  © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Ads by Google www. englishforarabs. com [pic] |(theory) |semantics   The meaning of a string in some language, as opposed to  syntax  which describes how symbols may be | | | |combined independent of their meaning. | | | | | | | |The semantics of a programming language is a function from programs to answers. A program is a  closed term  and, in | | | |practical languages, an answer is a member of the syntactic category of values. The two main kinds are  denotational | | | |semantics  andoperational semantics. | | This article is provided by FOLDOC Free Online Dictionary of Computing (foldoc. org) Ads by Google StudiesInAustraliaArabic. com [pic] Warning! The following article is from The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1979). It might be outdated or ideologically biased. Semantics the branch of linguistics that studies the meanings of linguistic units. Semantics can also be defined as an aspect of the study of signs in semiotics or as the meaning of linguistic units. [This article will discuss linguistic semantics, that is, semantics as first defined above. ] The term â€Å"semasiology† is historically a synonym for â€Å"semantics. † In linguistic semantics, the elementary object of study consists of the three elements of the linguistic sign—especially the word—considered in their unity: the signifier, the denotatum, and the signified. The signifier is the external element, the sequence of sounds or graphic signs. It is linked with the denotatum (a signified object or phenomenon of reality) and with the referent (an object or phenomenon signified by a given linguistic unit within an utterance or by an utterance as a whole). It is also linked with the signified, which is the reflection of that object or phenomenon in human consciousness. The signified is the result of the social understanding of reality and is usually identical to a concept or mental representation. The three-way link of signifier-denotatum-signified constitutes the category of meaning and the basic unit of semantics. These tripartite units enter into regular and systemic relationships with one another. One unit may be compared to another on the basis of one of the three elements: the signified (in the case of synonyms), the signifier (in the case of homonyms), and the denotatum and referent (in the case of a special form of synonymy known as transformation or periphrasis). Synonymy, homonymy, periphrasis (transformation), and polysemy form the basis of the systemic quality in semantics. The systemic quality is manifested most clearly in relatively small groups of words that are similar in one respect (in which they are synonyms) and opposed in another (in which they are antonyms). Such groupings, which differ depending on the language, constitute structural oppositions. For example, the Russian words  ekhat  (â€Å"to go [by vehicle]†),  idti  (â€Å"to go [on foot]†)  plyt’  (â€Å"to swim,† â€Å"to go [by boat]†), and  letet’ (â€Å"to fly†) have a common feature of â€Å"human locomotion† but are opposed as regards the feature of â€Å"means of locomotion. Such features within groups are studied and described as components of meaning or semantic factors. Elementary word groups may be combined in a relationship of content, forming thematic groups and semantic and lexical â€Å"fields. † For example, all the means of expressing the concept of joy in a given language constitute the lexica l-semantic field â€Å"joy. † Linguistic semantics seeks to provide a complete description of the semantic system of a given language in the form of a thesaurus. The thesaurus vividly demonstrates that semantics preserves what results from the reflection and comprehension of the objective world in human social practice. For example, the concepts â€Å"to be,† â€Å"to have,† â€Å"time,† â€Å"form,† and â€Å"content,† which were developed in European culture, may be represented differently or not at all in other cultures. In the language of the Hopi Indians, there are no nouns of the type â€Å"spring,† â€Å"winter,† â€Å"present,† and â€Å"future†; corresponding—but not identical—concepts are expressed adverbially (for example, â€Å"when warm†). Rain† is named as an object (substance) in Indo-European languages but as a process (feature) in the American Indian language of the Hupa (literally, â€Å"it comes down†). On the other hand, the opposition of substance (â€Å"object†) and feature (â€Å"process,† â€Å"action,† and so forth) is objective and universal: every language maintains the opposition through its own means and within the framework of its own system as an opposition between noun and verb. Semantics seeks to discover and study these universal semantic categories. The polysemant is a most important object of semantic study and one of the key points in the interrelationships between system and speech (or text). It represents a complex of lexical-semantic variants, related to one another in the system as specific lexical meanings and behaving in speech as the concrete realization of these meanings. In speech or text, words also enter into elementary relationships of another type. The relationships are determined by the ability of words to combine with one another. The combinations permitted by the system of a language determine the distribution of each word relative to others. For example, the distribution will vary for the Russian words  krichat’ (vo vsiu moch’) (â€Å"to shout [with all one’s might]†),  bezhat’(vo vse lopatki) (â€Å"to run [as fast as one  can]†), pozdravliat’ (ot vsego serdtsa) (â€Å"to congratulate [with all one’s heart]†), and  naedat’sia (do otvala) (â€Å"to eat [until one can eat no more]†). The distributive analysis of meanings is a special task of semantics. The word combinations  vo vsiu moch’, vo vse lopatki, ot vsego serdtsa, and  do otvala  have the common meaning of â€Å"to the highest degree,† but the specific form used to express this meaning depends on the combining word; thus,  vo vsiu moch’  is combined with  krichat’, vo vse lopatkiwith  bezhat’, and so forth. The form of expression is therefore a function of the combination. Semantics seeks to discover and study such functions—known as lexical parameters—which allow extensive groups of words, word combinations, and sentences to be represented as systemic periphrases (transformations) of one another. The creation of a thesaurus of functions is a long-range task of semantics. When transformations are studied, the distinction between lexical semantics (the meaning of root morphemes, words, and word combinations) and grammatical semantics (the study of the meanings of grammatical forms) recedes into the background, and traditional semasiology becomes simply a part of semantics. On the other hand, the distinction between the denotatum and the referent becomes essential. Thought correspondence to the denotatum is called meaning, and thought correspondence to the referent and the reflection in consciousness of a whole situation is often called sense. Thus, the content of the term â€Å"semantics† expands and semantics acquires a new task: to study the system of such â€Å"senses. † The study is known as syntactic semantics. Semantics also studies characteristic changes in meaning that occur in the history of a language and seeks to discover semantic laws. The conceptual fund of a language is divided into that which is the common property of all members of a given society and that which is the property of science. The former includes the everyday, â€Å"naive,† or linguistic, concepts (the â€Å"immediate† meanings of words), whereas the latter includes scientific concepts and terms (the â€Å"more distant† meanings of words). An example of the difference is seen in the colloquial use of the Russian word  kapital  to mean a large sum of money and the specialized use of the term in political economy to mean capital. One general semantic law is that everyday words having features in common with scientific concepts constantly strive to merge their parameters of content with those of the scientific terms. Key cultural terms, which differ for each era, occupy a special place between everyday and scientific concepts. Such key terms include â€Å"civilization,† â€Å"revolution,† â€Å"democracy,† â€Å"science,† â€Å"technology,† â€Å"individual,† â€Å"love,† and â€Å"machine. † The meanings of a language’s everyday words and the dominant ideas of society are combined in the semantic content of these terms. In studying the development of key cultural terms and concepts of different types, the tasks of semantics coincide with those of cultural history and semiotics. Semantics emerged in the late 19th century, simultaneously in Russia (M. M. Pokrovskii) and France (M. Breal), as a historical discipline studying semantic laws. According to the aspect of the semantics of language that is taken as the basis for the discipline, various directions are distinguished. These directions include analysis of lexical-semantic variation (V. V. Vinogradov, A. I. Smirnitskii, N. N. Amosova, A. A. Ufimtseva, and D. N. Shmelev of the USSR); oppositive (componential) analysis, or semantic factoring (L. Hjelmslev of Denmark, A. Kroeber and W. Goodenough of the USA, and O. N. Seliverstova of the USSR); and the method of fields and thesauri (R. Hailing and W. Wartburg of the Federal Republic of Germany and Iu. N. Karaulov of the USSR). Among other directions are distributive analysis (R. Langacker of the USA and V. A. Zvegintsev and Iu. D. Apresian of the USSR); logical-transformational analysis based on the category of lexical parameter, or function (I. A. Mel’chuk and Iu. D. Apresian of the USSR and A. Wierzbicka of Poland); and analysis of key cultural terms (G. Matore and E. Benveniste of France and Iu. S. Sorokin and R. A. Budagov of the USSR).